India faced more extreme weather events and higher damages in 2024

On November 8, 2024, the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi, released its annual state of extreme weather report. According to the report, extreme weather events have been steadily on the rise in India.

In 2024, India faced extreme weather events on 93 per cent of the days in the year’s first nine months - 255 out of 274 days - marked by heat and cold waves, cyclones, lightning, heavy rain, floods and landslides. These events claimed 3238 lives, affected 3.2 mha of crops, destroyed 235,862 houses and buildings, and killed approximately 9457 livestock. The report pointed out that it was very likely that even these reported damages were an underestimation due to incomplete data collection on event-specific losses, particularly on public property and crop damages. All the statistics were worse than those of 2023.

 

The year 2024 also set several climate records. January was India’s ninth driest since 1901. In February, the country recorded its second-highest minimum temperature in 123 years. May saw the fourth-highest mean temperature on record, and July, August and September all registered their highest minimum temperatures since 1901. 

 

In the Northwest, January was the second driest, and July recorded the region’s second-highest minimum temperature. The Southern Peninsula saw its hottest February ever, followed by exceptionally hot and dry March and April, but with a 36.5% surplus in July rainfall and the second-highest minimum temperature in August.

 

In terms of event types, the first nine months of 2024 saw everything from lightning and storms - spanning 32 states and resulting in 1021 deaths -- to relentless monsoon rains, which led to flooding across various regions. In Assam alone, heavy rains, floods and landslides were recorded on 122 days, leaving large parts of the state submerged and communities devastated. Nationwide, 1376 lives were lost due to floods.

 

Madhya Pradesh experienced extreme weather on 176 days - the most in the country. Kerala recorded the highest fatalities at 550 (Wayanad landslides), followed by Madhya Pradesh (353) and Assam (256). Andhra Pradesh had the most houses damaged (85,806). Maharashtra, which saw extreme events on 142 days, accounted for over 60% of the affected crop area nation-wide, followed by Madhya Pradesh (25,170 ha).

 

Regionally, Central India faced the highest frequency of extreme events with 218 days, followed closely by the Northwest at 213 days. In terms of lives lost, the Central region had the most deaths (1001), followed by the Southern Peninsula (762 deaths), East and Northeast (741 deaths) and Northwest (734 deaths). Twenty-seven states and Union Territories saw a rise in extreme weather days in 2024, with Karnataka, Kerala and Uttar Pradesh each experiencing 40 or more additional days of such events. 

 

These record-breaking statistics reflect climate change’s impact, where events that used to occur once every century are now happening every five years or even less. This frequency is overwhelming the most vulnerable populations, who lack the resources to adapt to this relentless cycle of loss and damage.

 

While heatwaves claimed 210 lives, the data did not reflect the extended health impacts of prolonged high temperatures on the wellbeing of people in North India, including farmers and labourers, who endured intense heat with little means of relief. Similarly, the toll of severe cold snaps and frost on crop losses is not captured, highlighting the need for robust compensation systems for weather-induced losses. Without this support, farmers are pushed into debt, exacerbating their marginalisation and poverty.

 

The report also emphasised the need for climate reparations from high-emission countries responsible for much of the damage. Climate models are clear: extreme weather events are set to become more frequent and severe.

FAO Report Highlights Rising Vulnerabilities of Rural Poor Amid Climate Shocks in India

 The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) organized a national-level dialogue on FAO’s report "The Unjust Climate" on 16 October 2024 in New Delhi. The dialogue focused on the multidimensional poverty and climate vulnerabilities in rural India, facilitated discussions and provided policy recommendations on addressing the adverse effects of climate stressors, including long-term changes in temperatures, on the rural poor, which is critical for reducing persistent and transitory poverty in India. 

India has made remarkable strides in reducing rural poverty over the past two decades. Headcount poverty rates have dropped dramatically from 42.5 percent in 2005/06 to just 8.6 percent in 2022/24, according to the latest estimates from the India Policy Forum (Desai et al. 2024). However, this success masks the growing challenge of transitory poverty. While many have risen out of poverty, a significant portion of the population has been pushed back due to unpredictable life events, particularly extreme weather events driven by climate change. 

 

FAO’s “The Unjust Climate” report highlights a stark reality: each year, in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs),households headed by women in rural areas suffer significantly greater financial losses than those headed by men. On average, female-headed households lose 8 percent more of their income due to heat stress and 3 percent more due to floods compared to male-headed households. This translates to a per capita reduction of USD83 due to heat stress and USD 35 due to floods, totalling USD37 billion and USD16 billion respectively across all LMICs. 

 

If the average temperatures were to increase by just 1°C, women would face a staggering 34 percent greater loss in their total incomes compared to men. Considering the significant existing differences in agricultural productivity and wages between women and men, the study suggests that if not addressed, climate change will greatly widen these gaps in the years ahead. 

 

FAO analyzed socioeconomic data from over 100,000 rural households (representing more than 950 million people) across 24 LMICs. By integrating this information with 70 years of georeferenced daily precipitation and temperature data, the report examines how various climate stressors impact people's incomes, labour, and adaptation strategies, differentiating based on their wealth, gender, and age. 

Impacts differ not just by gender but by socioeconomic status, according to the data. Heat stress, or overexposure to high temperatures, exacerbates the income disparity between rural households classified as poor, who suffer a 5 percent greater loss (USD 17 per capita) than their better-off neighbours, and the figures for flooding are similar. Extreme temperatures, meanwhile, worsen child labour and increase the unpaid workload for women in poor households. 

 

Extreme weather also compels impoverished rural households to resort to maladaptive coping strategies. These may include reducing income streams, selling off livestock, and shifting spending away from their farms. These actions, however, exacerbate their vulnerability to long-term climate changes. 

 

Policy Recommendations 

The report suggests that addressing these challenges requires targeted interventions to empower various rural populations to engage in climate-adaptive measures. 

1. Anticipatory social protection: Scaling up programs that provide financial support ahead of extreme weather events can prevent households from resorting to adverse coping mechanisms, such as selling off productive assets or reducing food consumption. 

1. Workforce diversification: Investing in skills development and vocational training, combined with mentorship programs, can help rural poor households diversify away from climate-sensitive work. This would enhance their resilience to climate-induced income shocks. It also recommends linking social protection programmes to advisory services that can encourage adaptation and compensate farmers for losers, such as cash-based social assistance programs. 

1. Gender-transformative approaches: Tackling discriminatory gender norms that prevent women from participating in non-farm employment is crucial. Programs that address these barriers can unlock new opportunities for income diversification, benefiting entire households. Inclusive climate actions are embedded in FAO’s Strategy and Action Plan on Climate Change and in the FAO Strategic Framework 2022–2031, where tackling the impact of climate change is mainstreamed in efforts to achieve the four betters: better production, better nutrition, better environment and better life for all. 

1. Participatory agricultural extension: Encouraging group-based approaches to agricultural experimentation can help rural farmers adapt to changing climate conditions. These collective methods reduce individual risks and promote shared learning, improving resilience. 

1. Access to adaptive technologies: Public investment in promoting climate-resilient agricultural technologies is critical for supporting land-constrained households. 

Agricultural policies must address gender equality and women's empowerment and intersecting vulnerabilities such as climate change. An analysis of agricultural policies from 68 low- and middle-income countries done by FAO last year showed that about 80 percent of policies did not consider women and climate change. 

 

As India continues to progress in poverty reduction, addressing the vulnerabilities posed by climate change is essential. Targeted interventions that strengthen the adaptive capacity of rural households and reduce their exposure to climate risks are key to ensuring that poverty reduction gains are sustained. The findings of this brief provide critical insights for policymakers and development organizations as they seek to protect the most vulnerable segments of the population from the adverse effects of climate change. 

 

Pact for the Future: World leaders pledge action for peace, sustainable development

 On 22 September 2024, at the UN Summit for the Future, world leaders adopted the Pact for the Future, a landmark declaration pledging concrete actions towards a safer, more peaceful, sustainable and inclusive world for tomorrow’s generations. The Pact along with its annexes, the Global Digital Compact and the Declaration on Future Generations, was adopted by consensus to chart out a peaceful, sustainable and inclusive future.

The Resolution was adopted despite a last-minute proposal for an amendment by some countries, including Russia, Iran, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) and Syria. The amendment sought to incorporate text calling for non-intervention in any issue of national sovereignty, and the primacy of intergovernmental deliberation, in effect, downplaying the role of the civil society or private sector interests. It was rejected after the 193-member Assembly decided not to act on the proposal.

Pact for the Future
The Pact’s five broad focus areas include: sustainable development; international peace and security; science and technology; youth and future generations and transforming global governance. This has become an urgent pivot, as multilateral financial institutions and even the United Nations itself have come up short seeking solutions to 21st century problems, the pact lays out.

By endorsing the Pact, UN Member States pledged, among other things, to:
•    Turbocharge the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement on climate change, two landmark 2015 agreements that have seen halting progress and missed milestones
•    Listen to young people and include them in decision-making, at the national and global levels
•    Build stronger partnerships with civil society, the private sector, local and regional authorities and more
•    Redouble efforts to build and sustain peaceful, inclusive and just societies and address the root causes of conflicts
•    Protect all civilians in armed conflict
•    Accelerate the implementation of our commitments on women, peace and security

Global Digital Compact
The Global Digital Compact marks the first truly worldwide agreement on the international regulation of artificial intelligence (AI) and is founded on the idea that technology should benefit everyone. It outlines commitments to ensure that digital technologies contribute to sustainable development and human rights, while addressing risks like digital divides, cybersecurity, and misuse of technology.

The Compact aims to bridge the digital divide and ensure AI technologies are used responsibly, fostering global cooperation on both AI capabilities and security threats. Governments are also obligated to form an impartial worldwide Scientific Panel on AI and start an international conversation about AI governance inside the UN.

Declaration on Future Generations
The Declaration on Future Generations focuses on securing the well-being of future generations, also highlighting the need to include their interests in decision-making processes. It also underlines the importance of protecting the environment, promoting intergenerational equity, and ensuring that long-term consequences of today's actions are considered.

State of the Rhino 2024

 Every September, the International Rhino Foundation (IRF) publishes its signature report, State of the Rhino, which documents current population estimates and trends, where available, as well as key challenges and conservation developments for the five surviving rhino species in Africa and Asia.

Key takeaways from the 2024 State of the Rhino report:
•    Rhino poaching in Africa increased by 4% from 2022 to 2023. At least 586 African rhinos were poached in 2023, one every 15 hours.
•    While thriving in several regions, the total black rhino population declined slightly over the last year due to heavy poaching in Namibia and Hluhluwe iMfolozi Park in South Africa.
•    White rhino populations in South Africa are on the rise despite poaching.
•    Greater one-horned rhinos have been making use of improved habitats and wildlife corridors.
•    Two calves were born at the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary in Way Kambas National Park in September and November 2023.
•    Since July 2023, Indonesian authorities have been investigating and prosecuting Javan rhino poaching groups, who confessed to killing 26 rhinos in Ujung Kulon National Park from 2019 to 2023.

                             State of the Rhino Species
Species                        IUCN Estimated Population    IUCN Category
White Rhino                        17464                                Near Threatened
Greater One-horned Rhino    4014                                 Vulnerable
Black Rhino                         6421                                  Critically Endangered
Javan Rhino                        About 50                            Critically Endangered
Sumatran Rhino                  34-47                                 Critically Endangered

Global Rhino Population
Year     Population
2007    24615
2009    27130
2012    29646
2016    27979
2018    27344
2021    26266
2023    27420
2024    27990

Rhinos in India
The Asian Rhino Specialist Group (AsRSG) announced that the greater one-horned rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis), found only in India, Nepal and Bhutan, has increased to 4,014 individuals after a biannual survey was completed in early 2022. The population is growing largely due to the governments of India and Nepal creating habitat for rhinos, while also preventing poaching.

IRF will continue our work with the Assam Government and our partners to help increase the rhino population in Assam, India, by supporting implementation of a new strategy, Indian Rhino Vision 2.0 (IRV2.0). IRV2.0 will help secure and manage a minimum of three meta-populations with a total population of 4,500 – 5,000 greater one-horned rhinos in Assam by 2030.

IRV 2.0 intends to:
•    Translocate 10 rhinos from Kaziranga National Park and Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary to Manas National Park, to increase the Manas population (and its genetic diversity).
•    Make Laokhowa and Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuaries, safe habitat for greater one-horned rhinos with adequate monitoring and security infrastructure, staff, strategies and equipment in place.
•    Establish a new rhino population in Laokhowa and Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuaries by translocating 20 rhinos from Kaziranga and Pobitora over the next 2-3 years.

The current population of greater one-horned rhinos in India:
•    Kaziranga National Park: 2613
•    Orang National Park: 125
•    Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary: 107
•    Manas National Park: 40
•    Jaldapara National Park:  287
•    Gorumara National Park: 52
•    Dudhwa National Park: 38

Kaziranga National Park, home to the world’s largest greater one-horned rhino population, announced an increase of 200 individuals since 2018, despite 400 deaths that were due mainly to natural causes.
In 2023, the Indian government increased Orang National Park by about 200 square km, connecting it to the Laokhowa and Burachapori Wildlife Sanctuaries, to build a larger landscape corridor for rhinos and other threatened species. This increase follows several expansions of Kaziranga National Park in recent years, which have added 919.48 square kilometers to the Park.

With NGO partners, including IRF, the government of Assam initiated translocations of rhinos within protected areas of Assam to give rhinos more room to breed. The state government also closes all rhino bearing protected areas in Assam to visitors during breeding season.

Working with Local Communities to Restore Habitat in India
One of the most significant landscape-level threats to greater one-horned rhinos is the prevalence of invasive species, which choke out native rhino food plants and limit the amount of habitat available for rhinos and other wildlife. IRF is collaborating with our NGO partner, Aaranyak, and local community members to remove these invasive plants from Manas National Park in India as a pilot phase, where around one-third of the rhinos’ grassland habitat has already been taken over by invasive species.

Over the past year, local community members successfully restored 50 acres of prime rhino habitat under the supervision of IRF’s on-the-ground partner, Aaranyak, and Manas National Park officials. They plan to restore another 250 acres over the next two years. Engagement of local people in removal of invasive plant species also offers them livelihood and in that way it helps park officials to garner better support from local communities along with improvement of grassland habitats.

Rhino news from India:
•    Rhinos return to Assam wildlife sanctuary after 40 years. In December 2023, two rhinos moved themselves from Orang National Park to the Laokhowa and Burhachapori Wildlife Sanctuaries by using a newly established wildlife corridor. A total of four rhinos now reside in this newly established area, allowing greater one-horned rhinos to expand their range and population growth in Assam.
•    Two rhinos were killed in a single day in Kaziranga National Park, home to the world’s largest population of greater one-horned rhinos.

Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024

 The Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024 was introduced in Lok Sabha on August 1, 2024.  The Bill amends the Disaster Management Act, 2005. The amendment aims to enhance India's disaster management framework with a focus on disaster risk reduction (DRR), improved coordination among various authorities, and strengthened urban disaster management.

Key provisions of the proposed Disaster Management (Amendment) Act, 2024: 

The Act establishes: (i) National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), (ii) State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA), and (iii) District Disaster Management Authority.  These authorities are responsible for disaster management at the national, state, and district level, respectively.  

Preparation of disaster management plans: The Act provides for constitution of a National Executive Committee and a State Executive Committee to assist NDMA and SDMA in performing their functions.  A key function of these Committees is preparing national and state disaster management plans, respectively.  NDMA and SDMA approve the respective plans and coordinate their implementation.  The Bill instead provides that NDMA and SDMA will prepare disaster management plans.

Functions of NDMA and SDMA:  Under the Act, key functions of NDMA and SDMA at their respective levels include: (i) reviewing the disaster management plans of government departments, (ii) setting guidelines for preparation of disaster management plans for authorities below them, and (iii) recommending provision of funds for disaster mitigation.  The Bill adds certain functions for these authorities at their respective levels.  These include: (i) taking periodic stock of disaster risks, including emerging risks from extreme climate events, (ii) providing technical assistance to authorities below them, (iii) recommending guidelines for minimum standards of relief, and (iv) preparing national and state disaster databases, respectively.  The databases will contain information on: (i) the type and severity of disaster risks, (ii) allocation of funds and expenditure, and (iii) disaster preparedness and mitigation plans.  Functions of NDMA will also include: (i) assessing disaster preparedness of states, and (ii) undertaking post-disaster audit of preparedness and response.

The Bill also empowers NDMA to make regulations under the Act with prior approval of the central government.

Urban Disaster Management Authorities:  The Bill empowers the state government to constitute a separate Urban Disaster Management Authority for state capitals and cities with a municipal corporation.  The Urban Authority will comprise the Municipal Commissioner as the chairperson, the District Collector as the vice chairperson, and other members specified by the state government.  It will prepare and implement the disaster management plan for the area under it.

Formation of State Disaster Response Force: The Act provides for constitution of a National Disaster Response Force for specialist response to disaster situations.  The Bill empowers the state government to constitute a State Disaster Response Force (SDRF).  The state government will define the functions of SDRF and prescribe the terms of service for its members.

Statutory status of existing committees: The Bill provides statutory status to existing bodies such as the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) and the High Level Committee (HLC).  The NCMC will function as the nodal body for dealing with major disasters with serious or national ramifications.  The HLC will provide financial assistance to state governments during disasters.  It will approve financial assistance from the National Disaster Mitigation Fund.  The Cabinet Secretary will serve as the chairperson of NCMC.  Minister of the department with administrative control over disaster management will serve as chairperson of the HLC.

Appointments to NDMA:  The Act provides that the central government will provide NDMA with officers, consultants, and employees, as it considers necessary.  The Bill instead empowers NDMA to specify the number and category of officers and employees, with previous approval of the central government. NDMA may also appoint experts and consultants as necessary.

The changes in the Amendment Bill compared to the Disaster Management Act of 2005:
1.    Urban Disaster Management Authorities (UDMAs)
o    Establishment of Urban Disaster Management Authorities (UDMAs) in state capitals and large cities with municipal corporations.
o    UDMAs are tasked with addressing the unique challenges of urban disaster management, especially in areas with dense populations and critical infrastructure.

2.    Disaster Database Creation
o    Creation of a comprehensive disaster database at national and state levels.
o    This database will include detailed disaster assessments, fund allocations, and preparedness plans to facilitate informed decision-making and efficient disaster response.

3.    Empowerment of NDMA and SDMAs
o    The Bill empowers the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) to take a more active role in disaster planning and response.
o    Responsibilities include preparing disaster management plans and conducting periodic risk assessments, particularly for emerging risks from extreme climate events. 

4.    State Disaster Response Forces (SDRFs)
o    The Bill permits state governments to establish their own State Disaster Response Forces (SDRFs).
o    These specialised units will decentralise disaster response capabilities, allowing for more effective management of disasters within state jurisdictions.

5.    Statutory Status for Committees
o    Existing bodies such as the National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) and the High-Level Committee (HLC) will receive statutory status.
o    This formalises their roles in managing national-level disasters and overseeing financial assistance during emergencies.

Greenpeace India releases report on air quality

 In early September 2024, Greenpeace India released the report “Spare the Air -2” (An Air Quality Analysis of 10 Cities from Southern India Edition-2). The report focused on the 10 south Indian cities, five of which (Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Chennai, Vijayawada, and Visakhapatnam) are non-attainment cities under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP). These cities were selected based on the availability of data, population, and monitoring station networks.

The highlights of the report:

• The yearly and monthly levels of PM2.5 and PM10 exceeded the revised WHO standards in all studied south Indian cities.
• The annual average level of PM2.5 is 6 to 7 times higher than WHO standards in Hyderabad, Vijayawada, Kochi, Mangaluru, Amaravati and Chennai.
• The annual average of PM10 level is slightly to 1.5 times higher than NAAQS standards in Mangaluru, Hyderabad, Kochi, Amravati, Chennai and Vijayawada.
• The monthly average trend in Bengaluru city shows that PM2.5 levels are 5 to 6 times higher, and PM10 levels are 3 to 4.5 times higher than WHO annual guidelines in all months. Meanwhile, PM10 exceeds NAAQS annual limits in February, March, April, October, November, and December.
• The monthly average trend in Hyderabad city shows that PM2.5 levels are 7 to 8 times higher and PM10 levels are 4 to 5 times higher than WHO annual guidelines. PM2.5 exceeds NAAQS annual limits from January to April, November, and December. PM10 exceeds NAAQS limits in January to June, August, October, November, and December.
• The monthly average Trend in Chennai city shows that PM2.5 are 4 to 7 times higher and PM10 levels are 3 to 6 times higher than WHO annual guidelines. PM2.5 exceeds NAAQS annual limits in January, while PM10 exceeds limits in January, February, October, and December.

The report shows that there is an urgent need to add other cities in south India to the non-attainment list under NCAP. The Clean Air Action Plan reports have shown that the emissions from vehicle exhaust, road dust, construction and demolition activities, industrial processes, and burning biomass are the main sources of rising particulate matter (PM) levels.

The report finds that air pollution is a matter of concern for south Indian cities as well as those in the north. The report shows that there is an urgent need to add other cities in south India to the non-attainment list under NCAP.

Review of National Clean Air Programme

In July 2024, the Centre for Science and Environment, New Delhi, released a report entitled “National Clean Air Programme: An Agenda for Reform”.

The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) in January 2019. This national programme is the first ever effort to set clean air targets for 131 cities designated as non-attainment cities due to consistently high particulate levels exceeding the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). These cities are required to reduce particulate concentration by 20–30 per cent by 2024 from the base year of 2017. This target has been further revised to achieve up to 40 per cent reduction by 2025–26 with respect to the base year of 2019–20.

This is the first ever instance of performance-linked funding for improving air quality. Cities have to demonstrate improvement in air quality to access this fund.

The money flow

A lot of money has flowed in to fund the clean air action plans in Indian cities. Under the overall Programme (NCAP) which covers 131 cities, 49 cities with million-plus populations have received money from the 15th Finance Commission; the remaining 82 cities have been funded directly by NCAP.

• Funds released to 131 cities: Rs 10,566 crore 

• Amount utilised overall: Rs 6,806.15 crore (64 per cent of the released funds), as of May 3, 2024

• 64 per cent of the overall utilisation has been in road dust mitigation

• Funds released for 82 NCAP cities is significantly lower than that given to the 49 15th Finance Commission cities. Utilisation of funds follows the same trend.

• 82 NCAP cities: Rs1,616.47 crore released; Rs 831.42 crore (51 per cent) utilised

• 49 cities under 15th FC grant: Rs 8,951 crore released; Rs 5,974.73 crore (67 per cent) utilised 

Key highlights of the CSE report and action to be taken 

1. Dust control has become the focus; PM2.5 should be the benchmark

Taking PM10 as the basis for assessing air quality improvement has diverted attention and investments towards dust control. Even though NCAP was originally planned to tackle both PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations in non-attainment cities, in practice only PM10 concentration has been considered for performance assessment. PM2.5, the more harmful fraction and emitted largely from combustion sources, has been neglected.

Annual changes in PM10 levels can be significantly influenced by meteorological factors, dust storms and heatwaves, rather than just policy actions. This may not adequately mirror the impact of action across all key sectors.PM10 monitoring needs to be source specific.

We should make PM2.5 improvement as the benchmark to drive action. PM2.5 is a more relevant health indicator to assess improvement in air quality. 

2. Mismatched aims and objectives; real on-ground action must be incentivised

Currently, cities ranked high for improving PM10 levels may not necessarily rank high for taking policy action. Cities that score high for good action under SVS can paradoxically be the worst performing cities for not improving PM10 concentration under NCAP. There is no way to establish the link between action and improvement in PM10 levels. 

CSE’s assessment shows that in 2022-2023:

• No clear correlation is apparent between policy implementation and PM10 improvement. Cities like Agra, Delhi, Ghaziabad, Meerut and Jabalpur (>10 lakh population category) performed well under SVS but performed poorly under NCAP for reducing PM10. Delhi ranked 9th under SVS for implementing policy measures but is at the bottom, scoring zero, under NCAP. In the 3-10 lakh population category, Amravati, Guntur and Rajahmundry were the best performers for taking action under SVS but were at the bottom under NCAP. Among cities with population of below 3 lakh, Kala Amb, Angul and Talcher ranked at the top under SVS and at the bottom under NCAP.

• Several cities performed well under both SVS and NCAP. Indore, Srinagar, Bhopal and Trichy (over 10 lakh population) ranked best under both assessments. Similarly, Moradabad, Firozabad, Ujjain and Bareilly (in the 3-10 lakh population category) and Parwanoo and Rae Bareli (population less than 3 lakh) were at the top under both SVS and NCAP. 

3. Key combustion sources neglected; improve the metrics to prioritise sources of toxic emissions –focus on industry, transport, solid fuels

With the current focus on dust control, the key combustion sources including transport and industry do not receive priority to build ambitious pathways. Due to city-specific action and a ‘hardline’ drawn around municipal boundaries, most industrial sources and power plants remain outside the orbit of city action plans. The small and medium scale units that exist in the non-conforming areas of cities are often not considered. 

Industrial pollution control remains business-as-usual. Only if a non-attainment city is an industrial township do some additional steps on industrial pollution control get reported. There is minimal reporting on stack emissions inspection, challans and closure notices or notification of approved fuel list. There is very little information in the city progress reports on upscaled action to accelerate clean fuels and technology transition. 

Progress reports of cities are also minimal on the indicators developed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for transport sector interventions requiring improvement in on-road emissions management, old vehicle phase-out, vehicle electrification, public transport improvement, non-motorised transport and parking policy as a demand management measure. These strategies are not well developed quantitatively and qualitatively for implementation, funding and reporting. 

For on-road emission management, information is largely confined to PUC challans and is limited on old vehicles phase-out; it not been translated into renewal and scrappage policies in line with the scrappage and fleet renewal notifications of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. Remote sensing cannot proceed as there are no central rules. Some states are using NCAP funds for expanding charging infrastructure. 

With respect to public transport, states have not yet adequately adopted state- and city-level guidelines and service-level benchmarks for planning of public transport infrastructure and multi-modal integration to enable modal shift and increase ridership. There is intermittent reporting on small corridors of walking and cycling. CPCB indicators related to parking policy as a demand management measure are not well understood. Cities often take this as a supply side management – read multi-level parking. The CPCB needs to develop adequate guidance and align the transport indicators more explicitly with the relevant Central government policies that have defined the targets, and design principles of these measures. 

4. Non-transparent/unavailable data; need transparency in reporting of action in cities to deepen the understanding of solutions implemented in cities

Annual ranking and improvement in air quality is not publicly available city-wise as part of the formal reporting system of NCAP. It is not possible to determine the level, scale and quality of action in each sector or understand how top-performing cities achieved 80-100 per cent of their targets. Evidence of detailed action is sometime available outside the NCAP reporting system. For example, the MoEFCC’s Annual Report of 2023-24 gives details of interventions of the Air Commission in Delhi-NCR. Delhi-NCR's multi-sector actions have improved air quality, but pollution remains a significant challenge that NCAP must address. The programme needs to assess the level of action required for different cities and towns, considering their unique challenges and circumstances, to meet clean air benchmarks.

5. Go beyond cities to take a regional approach

The experience so far has shown that cities cannot meet their clean air benchmark alone and need a regional approach to reduce the influence of transboundary pollution. Though the NCAP programme has taken this on board to target the Indo-Gangetic Plains with an airshed approach, inter-state coordination framework is yet to develop. State Action Plans have to be leveraged to minimise the influence of upwind pollution sources on downwind air quality within the state. 

Regional approach is also an opportunity for addressing pollution in smaller towns, suburban and rural areas as these need a cluster mechanism for solutions and common infrastructure. These towns do not have adequate resources or capacity to implement complex measures and infrastructure. 

6. National policies have to enable local action in cities and states

Multi-sector clean air action is both federal and national in nature. Several strategies related to industry, power plants, public transport infrastructure, waste management, and clean fuels need Central government support. Take for example, the approved fuel list that all state governments are issuing now – often, they cannot scale up implementation as national policies on pricing and infrastructure for clean fuels are not adequately supportive. Natural gas needs to be under GST to avoid the cascading effect of state taxes. Similarly, cities aiming to improve transit infrastructure or introduce remote sensing measurement need Central government rules and support. 

7. NCAP needs long term policy visibility and funding strategy for sustained and scalable action

In the next leg of the Programme, sectoral funding strategies need to converge more efficiently to accelerate sector-wise action on clean technologies, fuels, green infrastructure and urban design solutions. Even though national policies have suggested innovative financing strategies for sectoral resource mobilisation, it is not usually practiced. The state governments also need to do budget forecasting for advanced planning, build supportive strategies and repurpose funds according to the clean air indicators to free up resources from ineffective strategies and infrastructure. 

Polluters-pay principle should be applied to design taxes and cess, and pricing of products initiated for additional revenues to create dedicated funds for targeted action. Delhi, for instance, has imposed an environmental compensation charge on each truck entry daily, on each litre of diesel fuel sold and on the big cars and SUVs. Currently, city governments are underwriting the potential of generating revenues from parking by not enforcing variable parking pricing and eliminating free parking. As municipalities are the primary drivers of action, explore the opportunity of green municipal bonds. 

8. Need sectoral targets and mandate

NCAP has allowed reporting on the relevant sectoral actions and funding to align with clean air action. This shows that parallel sectoral schemes and programmes with stronger legislative and regulatory framework, mandate and committed funding have a faster pace of progress. For example, performance-linked funding for garbage-free cities by 2025 under Swachh Bharat Mission 2.0 shows more advancement that gets widely reported by cities as action taken to control waste burning. Clean air action has to get deeply sectoral with time-bound targets for development of infrastructure, systems and compliance for scalable impact and prevent deaths and illness. 

9. Need protocol for data recording and reporting on indicators

ULBs and SPCBs struggle to collect and upload data on the PRANA portal due to lack of understanding on tracking and maintaining datasets, despite having the relevant information. Departments need a protocol for inter-departmental information flow and reporting. They should be supported to develop an automated digital system for e-recording and reporting data in a standardised format, with capacity building and potential surveys or assessments to ensure effective programme implementation. 

10. Need stronger institutional mechanism and capacity for planning and implementation in cities

Several indicators have asked for strengthening of the capacity of the departments for the purpose of monitoring, tracking and providing laboratory support air quality monitoring and assessment. Most cities have set up high-level task forces under the chief secretary of the state with representation of heads of departments. This system has to work more effectively in planning the scope of multi-sector and multi-departmental action and for efficient fund allocation. 

11. Performance-linked assessment needs to capture and promote best practices to build the learning curve for other cities

The system of ranking and scoring cities is an opportunity to capture the details of sectoral good practices in different cities. If captured well, this can present a learning curve for others on the quality and scale of action. 

12. Need sustainable funding strategy at Central and state levels for sustained and scalable action

Current funding system under the 15th FC grant will come to an end in 2025-26. A more structured approach is needed to mobilise and align resources for clean air action until 2030. Sectoral funding strategies need to converge more efficiently to accelerate sector-wise action on clean technologies, fuels, green infrastructure and urban design solutions. There is no state-level strategy to mobilise additional resources through innovative financing. 

Application of polluters-pay principle is needed for designing taxes, pricing policy and cess for additional revenue to create dedicated funds for targeted action. As the municipalities are the primary drivers of action, the opportunity of green municipal bonds can be explored. Mainstreaming resources and repurposing of funds for clean air action is the imperative. Central schemes must converge and integrate clean air and low carbon objectives with targeted subsidies and market-based mechanisms to promote scaling up of clean technologies and address affordability and equity.  

13. Next phase of reforms need to prioritise action in key sectors to implement at a scale across the regions

The upcoming challenge is the need to shift the focus towards implementation of priority action in key sectors of pollution at a scale and link the performance-linked funding with targeted milestones.